Abstract

This research is based on a comparative study of metaphors in political discourse. For this purpose, Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Critical Metaphor Theory (CMT) as a qualitative methodological ground and the quantitative method has been applied manually to five selected speeches of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi on the Kashmir issue after the military siege from 2019 till now. This study aims to explore the conceptual metaphors in the political speeches of Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The main purpose of the study is to explore different types of conceptual metaphors like structural, ontological, and orientational that are used by these politicians to provide their thoughts, ideologies, and emotions on the said issue. This study provides new knowledge and guidance to understand the different metaphorical domains or structures in political discourse for future scholars.

Key Words

Metaphor, Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), political discourse, Kashmir conflict

Introduction

Metaphor is considered a significant figure of speech that is embedded in political discourse in a wide range. Lakoff (1993) states that "metaphor is a major and indispensable part of our ordinary, conventional way of conceptualizing the world, and that our everyday behaviour reflects our metaphorical understanding of experience" (p.2). Politics is frequently imagined as a competition, a conflict, a journey, and a game, all of which are distinct domains. The metaphors make the political discourse more influential, attractive, and powerful. Political speeches have a very significant role in get the target goals of politicians. Therefore, Political leaders are mainly concentrated on the use of metaphors in their speeches. 

Language is the main source of communication. The political leaders convince the public or voters to practice their policies and ideas and also construct trust through language. According to Charteris-Black (2004), "Language is the lifeblood of politics. Political discourse, therefore, concerns itself with a contest for power in which language serves as its backbone" (as cited in Kamalu & Iniworikabo, 2016, p.71). Therefore, language plays an integral part in constructing significant effects. Language helps the political leader to deliver the narrative in front of the world. Igiri et al. (2021) stated that “Political speech might be one of the most problematic types of discourse because it is usually characterized by the use of different techniques and strategies that allow politicians to convey their political messages and persuade people to their ideologies and thought” (Igiri et al. 2021, p.141). Through political discourse, politicians attract the audience and manipulate the minds of the masses.

Tensions between India and Pakistan continue to this day. Kashmir is one of the main reasons for the tension between Pakistan and India. There are certain elements that make the Kashmir conflict inflexible internally and externally. It means that this issue is not a decidable zone. Pakistan provided moral support to the Kashmiri rebels in the achievement of the specific goals.  The average people of Kashmir are suffering from the unrest in the state. Up to now, clashes between Indian security forces and the mujahedeen have resulted in significant losses of property, money, and life. (Qumber et al., 2017)

This research presents a comparison between the political speeches of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi on the Kashmir conflict. The Indian Subcontinent's political climate has been tainted by the conflict over Kashmir between India and Pakistan. For over 60 years, the Kashmir dispute has been a disaster, and little has been done to resolve it. (Ray, 2010). Therefore, the Kashmir issue is still going on between Pakistan and India after the partition of the subcontinent. The main goal of this research is to find out the thematic issue that is going to be explored through the conceptual metaphors in the political speeches of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi. It has been focused on the comparative analysis of political discourse to explore political expressions and ideologies.




Significance of the Study

Conceptual metaphors are commonly used by political leaders. This research focuses on how politicians portray their narratives in their political speeches by using metaphorical expressions and strategies. This research provides a deep analysis of political speeches to show how conceptual metaphors are used by Imran Khan and Narendra Modi. This study is helpful for those scholars who want to conduct research on the comparative ground of metaphorical expressions in political speeches. Future scholars in political science, as well as linguistics, will advantage from this kind of study.

Literature Review

Metaphor

Metaphors have been used frequently in all languages around the world, and metaphors are also very sophisticated linguistic tools that make the language more informative. Luke (1999) provides a valid, simplistic, uncomplicated explanation or meaning that is based on etymological reference. Therefore, he stated that the term meta originated from the Greek word meta, which has the meaning of carry beyond and transfer. As a result, a metaphor may be viewed as a tool that is used to shift the meaning from one domain to another. It is a type of expression that, as Andrew and Ortony (1993) stated, is linked to invention, understanding, and explanation.

The meaning of the word came through the image or idea that was made in the mind. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stated, "Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world, and how we relate to other people. Our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining our everyday realities" (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.3). That is why the types of meanings of the metaphors are taken from different perspectives as they are defined in the following two categories: the classical meaning of the metaphor and the central meaning of the metaphor. Concerning metaphors, these terms of meaning would make it tough to perceive a metaphor as an effective viewpoint if you did not understand or recognize the differences between the terms.




The Classical Meaning of the Metaphor

From the historical point of view, metaphors are taken as poetic figures. It is considered a part of figurative language. It has significant importance in poetry. Poets frequently use metaphors in their poetry. Metaphors were considered to deliver one concept through the use of another thing or word. It means that words can have other meanings that are different from their literal meanings. Some scholars also give their reviews of the classical meanings of the metaphors. As Gibbs (2008) stated that: "earlier work conducted within traditional disciplinary frameworks…for example, language (linguistics), mind (psychology), or culture (anthropology), with few scholars ever acknowledging the ubiquity of metaphor in other domains of experience such as gesture, art, and music (Gibbs, 2008, p.4-5).

It means a metaphor has been given a singular meaning. According to the classical view, a metaphor is just a language or linguistic expression. It is not related to thought or cognitive processes. Therefore, a metaphor is a poetic expression. It means a metaphor has one or more than one meaning that presents the same concepts as the word (pointed metaphor). So, it has no relation to the cognition process.




The Central Meaning of the Metaphor

It is related to the cognitive domains. Lakoff and Johnson’s work, Metaphors We Live By (1980), plays a vital role in the field of cognitive linguistics. According to them, metaphors have completely belonged to their cognitive interpretation. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stated that: “Metaphor is, for most people, a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish—a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language….a matter of words rather than thought or action” (p.3).

The above statements by Lakoff and Johnson describe the metaphor from a very different perspective. They presented the metaphors as linguistic expressions. They explained that metaphor is not used to give the outer meaning but is related to cognitive meaning and interpretation. Metaphors have been changed or viewed as external. Metaphors are not only considered literary devices but also linguistic devices, which shows that language is going to be seen as more than a literary device. They changed the concept of metaphors and have given new ideas or notions about metaphors. They claimed that metaphors have extraordinary meanings that are used to express their conceptual and contextual association with them. Therefore, they gave a strong point of view that they transferred the metaphors from poetic expressions to cognitive expressions. 




Conceptual Metaphor 

A conceptual metaphor is to understand one conceptual domain in terms of another. It is defined as transferring an abstract term into a concrete term. As Kovecses (2010) states that: “A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of the other. A conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience” (Kovecses, 2010, p.4)

The cross-mapping of domains is systematic.  Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stated, "Since metaphorical expressions in our language are systematically tied to metaphorical concepts, we can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to study the nature of metaphorical linguistic concepts and to gain an understanding of the metaphorical nature of our activities” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.7). The word journey does not have the conventional meaning of path, road, or way, nor does it mean we are going somewhere, but rather how far a relationship goes. Therefore, it conveys the meaning of how we experience things in the world. Love is experienced as a journey. A love relationship can be compared to a vehicle, such as a car, train, plane, or boat.

Conceptual metaphors are entirely related to the process of thinking. The language of metaphors is being used in everyday life. The conceptual metaphors are systematic in that the source domains are mapped onto the target domains. In the illustrations, the argument is war. The word "war" has a concrete meaning, and the word "argument" has an abstract meaning. The use of metaphor is evident in our routine conversations:

a) His speaking style is very defensive.

b) In her speech, she adopts an aggressive tone.

c) His argument was shattered by me.

Metaphorical thoughts and concepts are structured and constructed systematically. In the illustration of "Argument is War," the words are used according to the sense of arguing, like defence, attack, shattering, etc. It depicts metaphorical concepts rather than the actual war. The systematic view showed the understanding of one domain in terms of another. The metaphorical concepts are given through words. It means the ideas put forward to get through, in particular, words regarding culture. 1980 and Johnson (1980) claimed that "a metaphorical concept can keep us from focusing on other aspects of the concept that are inconsistent with that metaphor." (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.10). In short, through the conceptual metaphors, we get the different aspects of the concepts that are not relatable to some extent.




Different Types of Conceptual Metaphors

A conceptual metaphor consists of three types that are classified because of their different functions. The conceptual metaphors provide the metaphorical expression of the concepts by dividing them into future types. Through the types of conceptual metaphors, the different metaphorical expressions and concepts of life will be explored. There are the following three types of conceptual metaphors:




Structural Metaphors

Structural metaphors are the types of conceptual metaphors that mean one idea or concept is constructed in terms of another. In structural metaphors, "metaphorical expressions in everyday language can give us insight into the metaphorical nature of the concepts that structure our everyday activities." (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.8). Lakoff and Johnson (1980) gave the example of the structural metaphor in the sense of "argument is war." In this illustration, the war gives a concrete image of the concept of the argument.

Structural metaphors are interrelated with social and physical experiences. The characteristic is in all the conceptual metaphors. Ideas and concepts are formed through physical and social experiences, and these ideas and concepts are defined through metaphorical expressions. 




Orientational Metaphors

This is the second type of conceptual metaphor. Unlike structural metaphors, orientational metaphors are not based on one concept or idea constructed in terms of another. Orientational metaphors delivered the idea or concept of spatial orientational like "up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral." (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.14). Orientational metaphors are also considered arbitrary because they have gotten through social and cultural experiences. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stated, "Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation; for example, happy is up." The fact that the concept "happy" is oriented UP leads to English expressions like "I'm feeling up today" (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p.15). 




Ontological Metaphors

Ontological metaphors are driven by experience with objects and substances, which helps to get a maximum understanding of the ideas or concepts. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stated, "Our experiences with physical objects (especially our own bodies) provide the basis for an extraordinarily wide variety of ontological metaphors." (p.26). It means that physical experiences are more beneficial in terms of getting an understanding of the concepts. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) provide three further types of ontological metaphors:




Image-Schema Metaphors

The metaphors are also determined by images and shapes and are not only determined by the source domains that are mapped onto target domains. Metaphors are considered image schemas, which occur through the demonstration of repeated vibrant structures of physical connections that are formed by our comprehension of the natural world. Previous research has primarily focused on the verbal expressions of conceptual metaphors. Lakoff and Johnson also argued that metaphors are related to the conceptual system. Then, it needed to examine the conceptual metaphors in the non-verbal method, not in the verbal method. Conceptual metaphors are recognized in nonverbal modes such as music, gestures, images, and visual arts, according to the aforementioned concepts. That is called image-scheme metaphors.

The image-schema metaphors are not mapped from the source domain to the target domain while they are built on skeleton image schemas that are not similar to structural metaphors. We can say that physical and structural experiences are being explored, but there is a need to explore the concepts and ideas through the image schema. The image-schema metaphors look more like ontological metaphors that are focused on images rather than thoughts or concepts. It basically concentrates on visual experiences, not verbal ones. For instance, in ontological metaphors, there is the spatial orientation in-out, back-front, and so on. That is also an example of image schema metaphors.




Political Communication

The use of metaphors in everyday life is very common, and people use them unconsciously. It means that metaphors have a strong impact on our daily lives and conversations. Ideas, thoughts, feelings, and language are included in metaphors, and they also perform functions that lie at the line of a pervasive and rhetorical cognitive process. Metaphors are being used in every field of life and are used by ordinary people as well as intellectual or talented people. Similarly, politicians also use metaphors in their political speeches and ideas. It makes political speeches pervasive and informative at the same time. The political field is considered richer in the usage of metaphorical expressions and no other field is as much influenced as the political (Gabeirase, 2019).

Political communication is also used to address the international community and give an opinion on the international political platform. Denton and Woodward (1990) also define political communication as: "Pure discussion about the allocation of public resources (revenues), official authority (who is given the power to make a legal, legislative, and executive decision), and official sanctions (what the state rewards or punishes)" (As cited in McNair, 2017, p. 14).

Political communication is also used in campaigns that can be held for social purposes or for an election. It is also based on giving a briefing to the public and audience about the movements of the politicians. As Trent and Friedensberg (2000) assert, "Political communication today is a broad term. It has been used to describe the communication involved in elections, governing a state, reporting on politicians' activities, and gathering and determining public opinion". (As cited in McNair, 2017, p.15). It is a very informational form of communication. Political leaders’ communications are based on getting the targets. 

Umar (2019) claimed that political communication is just a rotation around the political actors. In political communication, there is a requirement to get knowledge about a specific category by keeping within its perceptions, and it is taken as a category of the field that belongs to the phenomena of politics that created it uncertain and ambiguous. Political communication gives the idea that political speeches are generated by politicians, and they professionally form speeches and discourse. Therefore, the use of discourse in political communication is only created by politicians and not by non-politicians like students, journalists, and political analysts, and politicians make some remarks outside of their professional domains, thus restricting the scope of political speech and avoiding the domain of politics from expanding to the point where it becomes part of the public conversation.




Usage of Metaphors in Political Discourse 

The use of metaphorical expressions has developed a connection between non-identical individuals (politicians and voters). As Beer (2004) asserts, "Politicians use metaphors as tools of persuasive communication, to bridge gaps and build identification between strangers" and, therefore, "to generate votes and win elections” (as cited in Gabeirase, 2019, p.24

The use of a metaphorical expression in political discourse and speeches conveyed abstract, complex, and difficult ideas in the simplest way that would be easy to understand by the public. It also gives information about the mental framework of political leaders.




Political Discourse in Pakistan

The language of Pakistani politics was transformed after the result of the post-nine-eleven incidents because the whole world took Pakistani politics from a negative perspective. The consequences of this incident also impacted the social and cultural domains of Pakistan. This incident led the Pakistani community to a challenging phase in the US because Pakistani people are treated badly. So, this incident has left an impact on Pakistani politics all over the globe. It revealed how metaphorical expressions are used to dominate the authority of politicians. The final address of Benazir (a late Pakistani female politician) exposed the images of the adversary symbolically, and she always portrayed herself as the biggest nationalist, getting widespread applause from the voters. Benazir always presented a negative image of the other politicians but portrayed her image or party image in a very positive manner. Iqbal (2015) conducted research to examine Pakistani politicians’ speeches in the pre-post-election period in 2013. She also asserted that political language is used to control the mindset of the general public and get consideration from them. Pakistani politicians also give attention to it. She gave a comparison between the Pakistani and American leaders. In this regard, she pointed out that the metaphorical expressions were not presented in large amounts, so there was less use of metaphorical expressions than in American political leaders’ speeches (Iqbal, 2015).




Political Discourse in India

Political discourse is usually based on party policies and strategies. In the Indian political discourse, politicians not only addressed the party's policies and strategies but also gave their point of view on religionism and nationalism. It has a bad impact on society. As Bansal (2018) claimed, "The current political discourse in the country signals the intellectual bankruptcy that its leaders showcase." It means that Indian political leaders are not providing a narrative geared toward the nation or the common public on healthy or positive grounds.

The political discourse of Indian leaders is based on the negative narration of the opposition leaders or other nations’ leaders. As Baig (2019) stated, "The Pakistan image is created of a country that sponsors terrorism as an official policy in other countries, especially India." (Baig, 2019, p.60). Indian political leaders are consistently engaged in defaming Pakistan around the world. They also considered Pakistan the reason for terrorism at the world level. Because of that, Pakistan is considered a terrorist state. As Baig (2019) also stated: "Indian politicians seem to follow a method in blaming Pakistan for the poor relationship, as they project India as a peaceful and responsible power, which has been struggling to cope with what they accuse an irresponsible state like Pakistan." (Baig, 2019, p.50-51). This sort of narration is given by Indian political leaders. That is the reason for the growth of hatred between the people of the two nations.

Method and Methodology

Research Questions

1.    Which types of conceptual metaphors have been used frequently in the political speeches of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi?

2.    How do the metaphors in the selected political discourse reveal the political ideologies and expressions about the Kashmir conflict?

 

Research Design

In this research, Critical Metaphor Theory (CMT) is the model of conceptual metaphors that was proposed by Lakoff and Johnsen (1980). It is normally used to conduct a study on qualitative grounds. The corpus data has been analyzed manually. The data consists of five speeches each by Imran Khan and Narendra Modi on the Kashmir conflict during the military siege. Therefore, this research is based on a mixed method. This indicates that the two research methodologies work together to make the analysis of the study simpler and more worthwhile. It demonstrated how it aided in the detailed evaluation of the findings.

 

Presentation of Data

Every single detected metaphorical term is given a number, which makes it easier to recognize the narrator and the speech it refers to. The alphabet A is used to represent Imran Khan’s speeches. The alphabet B is used to represent Narendra Modi’s speeches. Like,

Imran Khan’s Speech = A

Narendra Modi’s Speech = B

The speech numbers are presented in numerical form. For Speech Number = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

 

Selected Speeches of Imran Khan

The metaphorical expressions have been analyzed in the mentioned political speeches:




 

Table 1

No.	Title
SPEECH 1	Imran Khan at the 74th United Nations General Assembly on September 27, 2019,
SPEECH 2	Prime Minister Imran Khan in the Joint Session of Parliament on Kashmir, August 6, 2019
SPEECH 3	Prime Minister Imran Khan at the 75th United Nations General Assembly, September 25, 2020
SPEECH 4	Prime Minister Imran Khan at the 76th session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) on September 25, 2021
SPEECH 5	Prime Minister Imran Khan at a public gathering in Kotli (Kashmir Day) on February 5, 2021.

 

Selected Speeches of Narendra Modi

The metaphorical expressions have been analyzed in the mentioned political speeches:

 

Table 2

No.	Title
SPEECH 1	Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s address to the nation on August 8, 2019
SPEECH 2	Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Speech on 73rd Independence Day, August 15, 2019
SPEECH 3	Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 74th Independence Day, August 15, 2020
SPEECH 4	Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Kashmir Issue, December 26, 2020
SPEECH 5	Prime Minister Modi on Panchayati Raj Day in Jammu and Kashmir, April 24, 2022.




Data Analysis Method

The study has been executed to find out what sort of conceptual metaphors in political discourse are used by politicians. The political speeches of the politicians are examined thoroughly by the researcher according to their characteristics. Afterwards, the researcher compiled a list of selected political speeches and classified them according to their characteristics and functions. Political discourses are being analyzed through some moves. In this regard, the language of political discourse is comprehended and grasped by the researcher first. Then the political speeches were examined on the basis of text and phrases. The text, words, and phrases are being pointed out in accordance with the types of conceptual metaphors and also find out the frequent types of conceptual metaphors like Orientational metaphors (a type of conceptual metaphor).

The study also investigated the social and cultural impacts of political speech, which were demonstrated through conceptual metaphors. It also elaborates on the priorities of the political leaders.

The orientational metaphors are also used to demonstrate the physical, social, cultural, and natural notions of the politicians in their speeches. This type of conceptual metaphor is used to explain the idea of how much oppression or force has been imposed on the common public.

The ontological metaphors are carried out by the concept of experiences with things and realities. This type of conceptual metaphor is conveyed by using some particular terms like politics as a physical state, objects as a container,  visual as a container, and state as a container. Political leaders convey these concepts in their speeches to present some experiences with realities in politics.

Current research has shown the impact of utilizing conceptual metaphors in political discourse. It also revealed how political ideologies and strategies are being used to frame the Kashmir issue by using metaphors. The researchers intend to give the concept of how metaphors are used according to contextual ideologies. The conceptual metaphors are being used on the basis of the social, cultural, and religious background.

Results and Discussions

Findings of the Study

The qualitative analysis of the study is shown in Figures 1 and 2. It revealed the comparative analysis of the political speeches of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi. The results have identified a total of 89 conceptual metaphors, of which 37% are structural metaphors, 51% are orientational metaphors, and 13.5% are ontological metaphors, in the five political speeches of Imran Khan. The result of Imran Khan's political speeches is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1

The research identified a total of 93 conceptual metaphors, of which 39.78%are structural metaphors, 49.46 %are orientational metaphors, and 10.75% are ontological metaphors in the five political speeches of Narendra Modi. The result of Narendra Modi's political speeches is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2

The corpus data for this study has been taken from the political speeches of the political leaders Imran Khan and Narendra Modi after the military siege in Kashmir till now. In this study, the theory of conceptual metaphor has been used to examine the corpus data. The researcher examined the data by getting the words and phrases that hold the conceptual metaphorical expressions. By applying tabulation, it is categorized on the basis of the types of metaphors. According to the events or situations, Imran Khan's and Narendra Modi's political speeches have each been evaluated.

Discussion

Discussion on the Political Speeches of Imran Khan

Imran Khan is the chairman of Pakistan Tareek e Insaaf (PTI) and a former prime minister of Pakistan. The political speeches of Imran Khan were collected on the Kashmir issue after the military siege in Kashmir on August 5th, 2019. In his speeches, Imran Khan took a stand for the Kashmiri people at the national and international levels to get relief from violence and illegal occupation in Jammu and Kashmir. In this regard, conceptual metaphors are identified in his political speeches. As these are mentioned below,




Structural Metaphor

The conceptualized expression ‘Politics is a Motion is identified. The conceptual metaphors move (A1, 2019) and step towards (A2, 2019) specifying the movement of something. The identified words represent that something is going to change or happen. Imran Khan used the conceptual metaphor to describe the movement of others. The mapping of the concept of 'Politics is a Motion' shows the motion as a source domain and politics as a target domain.

The conceptualized expression ‘Person is Authority’ is identified. The examples explain how a person gets a high position or office. It means that coming into power (A1, 2019) shows authority. Imran Khan uses this metaphorical expression to indicate that he is the prime minister and has authority. The mapping of the concept of the ‘Person is Authority’ represents the person as a source domain and authority as a target domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is a Valuable Commodity’ has been recognized. ‘Valuable Commodity’ is considered the source domain that represents the relationship with ‘Politics’ which is considered the target domain. The word lost (A2, 2019) means someone who isn’t present physically or killed in the war. Imran gave the idea that people lost their lives or were killed by armed forces in the war. The lives of people have been correlated with politics, which is a ‘Valuable Commodity’.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is War’ is identified. The words war (A1, 2019), fight (A1, 2019), and threatening (A1, 2019) are used to convey the idea of a battle between different countries or armed forces. ‘War’ is associated with politics in the selected discourse. Imran Khan warns his adversaries in his speeches. So, ‘Politics’ is considered a source domain, and ‘War’ is considered a target domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is Journey’ is identified. ‘Journey’ has been correlated with ‘Politics’. The word packed up (A1, 2019) gives the idea of gathering belongings for travelling purposes. The words path (A2, 2019) and way (A5, 2021) also give the meaning of route and road. Political leaders use this metaphor to say that politics is associated with the concept of travel. In these illustrations, ‘Journey’ is a source domain and ‘Politics’ is a target domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is Sport’ has been recognized. ‘Sport’ is associated with ‘Politics’. Imran Khan used sports concepts in his speeches to convey particular political behaviour. Therefore, 'Sport' has been taken as a source domain and 'Politics' has been taken as a target domain. The words win (A5, 2021), over (A2, 2019), and turn game (A2, 2019) are used to explain the political strategies to get victory in the political field. Imran Khan used the sports metaphor in his speeches because he belonged to cricket. Political leaders considered politics as a game or sport.

The conceptual expression ‘Terrorism is a War’ has been identified. The words attack (A1. 2019) and bomb (A1, 2019) give the idea of aggressive action by terrorists. Pakistan has faced a lot of terrorism in the past years. ‘Terrorism’ is correlated with ‘War’. The word ‘War’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Terrorism’ is considered a target domain. Imran Khan used this metaphor to specify how terrorism is associated with other countries without any fault.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is Entertainment’ is identified. The word movie (A1, 2019) is taken as a source of fun and entertainment. In these examples, politics has a connection with entertainment through a mentioned movie. ‘Politics’ is considered a target domain, and ‘Entertainment’ is considered a source domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is Violence’ has been recognized. The words bloodbath (A1, 2019), hotspot (A2, 2019), abducted and tortured (A3, 2020), killed (A4, 2021) and crimes against humanity (A4, 2021) are given the concepts of violence. The words bloodbath, killed, and genocide indicate the death of people on an extreme or dangerous level. Imran Khan uses these metaphorical expressions to describe how much torture and violence is facing the Kashmiri people. ‘Politics’ is considered a target domain, and ‘Violence’ is considered a source domain.







Orientational Metaphors

The metaphorical expression ‘More is up’ has been identified. The words highest (A1, 2019) and many (A2, 2019) give the meaning of something in large quantity. These metaphorical expressions elaborate on the number of people or persons. This metaphorical expression gives the meaning that when something is added to politics, it signifies that it has an impact on it. Imran Khan used the conceptual metaphor raise (A5, 2021) to increase the voices of people against the illegal occupation in Kashmir. 'Up' is associated with ‘More, which denotes the significance of something in a large amount. The concept ‘More is up’, gives the meaning of something going too high in the upward direction. ‘More’ is considered a source domain and ‘Up’ is considered a target domain. 

The political discourse is given the concept of ‘Having Control is up’. The words radical (A1, 2019), blew up (A1, 2019) racial superiority (A1, 2019), and superpower (A5, 2021) demonstrated the concept of having control through power. It means that power or control affected politics. Imran Khan used the metaphorical expression of control to show how a superior country suppressed an inferior country. The words under (A1, 2019), lock up (A1, 2019), grab hold (A2, 2019), and undertaken (A4, 2021) also showed that Kashmiri or Muslims are being oppressed by the Indian government. The conceptual expression 'Having Control is up' has been identified. It gives the meaning of control on an extreme level. Imran Khan has discussed a lot about military control of the Kashmiri people in India. The words illegally occupied and undertaken indicate that India's armed forces illegally control the Kashmiris. 

The words oppress (A2, 2019), impose military siege (A3, 2020), violently suppressed (A4, 2021), and brute force (A3, 2019) give the concept of ‘Having Force is up’. It exemplifies what it means to be the ultimate force. Imran Khan has discussed India's military rule over Kashmiris. It also suggested that India's military forces were infringing on Kashmiris' rights. ‘Up’ has a connection with the concept of ‘Having Force’. The political discourses are given the conceptual expressions ‘Having Control or Force is up’. The metaphors of up and upping provided the idea of increasing something in quantity. It means that military control is increasing in Jammu and Kashmir. ‘Up’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Having Control or Force’ is considered the target domain.

The political discourse gives the idea of ‘Having Force is down’. The phrase holds off (A2, 2019) suggests that there is a decrease in force. ‘Down’ is associated with the idea of ‘Having Force’, which means force or control is not on an extreme level. ‘Down’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Having Control or Force’ is considered a target domain.

The political speeches demonstrate the idea of ‘Known is down’. The words realized (A1, 2019) and aware (A5, 2021) provide the concept of knowing something, which means it would be impactful for politics. ‘Down’ is associated with the idea of ‘Known’. ‘Down’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Known’ is considered a target domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Conscious is up’ has been identified. The words stand up (A1, 2019), up (A2, 2019), and awakens (A5, 2019) suggested that someone was awake. ‘Up’ is associated with the concept of ‘Conscious’, which states that when someone is awakened, it has an impact on politics. ‘Up’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Conscious’ is considered a target domain.

The political statements provide the concept of ‘Unknown is up’ that has been identified. The words unaware, no idea, and not fully grasped (A2, 2019) are given the idea of not knowing something. ‘Up’ is related to the concept of ‘Unknown’, which implies that when someone is not aware, they will have an influence on politics. The domain ‘up’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Unknown’ is used as a target.

The political statement gives the metaphorical strategy of ‘Less is down’. The word reduce (A2, 2019) indicates the meaning of turning down something or a decrease that has also affected political things. The domain ‘Down’ is used as a source domain, while the domain ‘Less’ is used as a target domain.

The political statement provides the metaphorical expression of ‘The Future will be Better’. The phrase can increase (A2, 2019) means that something is going to rise. The sentence provides the concept that the growth rate will rise in the future, which will also affect politics. ‘Better’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Future’ is considered a target domain.




Ontological Metaphor

The political statements have given the concept of ‘Politics is a Physical State’. The words and phrases that feel pain, facing, standing (A5, 2021), suffering (A5, 2021), and experiencing the painful (A2, 2019) provide the meaning that someone is not in a good position. The words and phrases indicate that politics is mirrored in the physical state. The domain ‘Physical State’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Politics’ is used as a target.

The political statements represented the metaphorical expression Objects as a Container’. The words out of (A2, 2019) and from their (A2, 2019) suggest the meaning of having something in an object. The domain ‘Container’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Objects’ is used as a target.

The political statement represented the metaphorical expression ‘Visual Field as a Container’. The phrase witness with their eyes (A2, 2019) gave the idea of things beings in sight. The domain ‘Container’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Visual Field’ is used as a target.

The discussion of Imran Khan’s speeches indicates that he used conceptual metaphors to deliver his ideologies about the Kashmir conflict. He used structural metaphors to convey the concepts of violence and terrorism; orientational metaphors to convey the concepts of oppression and power, and ontological metaphors to convey the concepts of the pain and suffering of Kashmiris. Imran Khan made the most use of orientational metaphors. It shows that the Kashmiri people are being oppressed by the Indian armed forces. 




Discussion on the Political Speeches of Narendra Modi

Narendra Modi has been the current Prime Minister of the state of India since 2014. His political party, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), is the major party in India. He is the most followed political leader in India on social media. The political speeches of Narendra Modi on the Kashmir issue were collected from 2019 till now. In his speeches, Narendra Modi defended his actions during the military siege in Jammu and Kashmir behind Article 370. He wanted to believe that it was not violence. Even this has been taken for the betterment of Jammu and Kashmir. In this study, the conceptual metaphors or expressions that are used by Narendra Modi have been identified. As these expressions are being discussed,




Structural Metaphor

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is Journey’ has been recognized. The words journey (B2, 2019), path (B4, 2020), going to (B1, 2019), and corridor (B2, 2019) give the concept of travelling or journey. The word corridor provides the meaning of a typically constrained path or passage. This metaphor is used by political leaders to explain how politics is related to the idea of a journey. Politics is considered a movement and a journey. ‘Politics’ is considered a target domain, and ‘Journey’ is considered a source domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is Violence’ has been recognized. The words terrorism (B2, 2019), secessionism, and separation (B1, 2019) are given the concepts of violence. The words secessionism and separation express the meaning of withdrawal from a large group, and it might be caused by extreme consequences. The word terrorism indicates the concept of violence that is the reason for the fear and genocide of civilians. Narendra Modi used these metaphorical expressions to describe how secessionism and separation are the main reasons for violence in the region of India. In these examples, ‘Politics’ is considered a target domain, and ‘Violence’ is considered a source domain.

The conceptualized expression ‘Politics is a Motion’ is identified. The conceptual metaphors move (B3, 2020), moving (B1, 2019), and moving forward (B2, 2019) all refer to motion or something in motion. These words represent that something is going to change or happen. Narendra Modi used this conceptual metaphor to explain the movements for change in Jammu and Kashmir. The mapping of the concept of 'Politics is a Motion' shows the motion as a source domain and politics as a target domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is a Valuable Commodity’ has been recognized. ‘Valuable Commodity’ is considered the source domain that represents the relationship with ‘Politics’, which is considered the target domain. The word lost (B1, 2019) means someone isn’t present physically or killed in the war. The word cost (B5, 2022) indicates the meaning of expense or paid and something is valuable. Throughout the Kashmir conflict, Modi suggested that individuals were slain or lost their lives. The lives of people have been correlated with politics, which are valuable commodities and costly things are also considered valuable commodities.

'Politics is Plant' is a conceptualized expression that identifies. The idea that 'Politics is Plant' is used to demonstrate the structural metaphor. The words root (B2, 2019) and grass-root (B4, 2020) are associated with the plant. The politics are indicated as the plant. The mapping of ‘Politics is Plant’ represented the plant as a source domain and politics as a target domain.

The conceptualized expression 'Person is Authority' is identified. The selected political discourse shows how someone might get a high position or office. It signifies that authority is demonstrated through power. Modi utilized this metaphor to convey his position and power as prime minister. The concept of 'Person is Authority' was represented as a source domain and authority as a target domain in the mapping.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is War’ is identified. The words defend (B4, 2020), victory (B5, 2022), fight (B5, 2022), and threaten (B4, 2020) are used to represent a conflict between various nations or military forces. ‘War’ is associated with ‘Politics’ in the given illustrations. These examples demonstrate how political leaders employ this kind of figurative phrase when arguing for war. Political leaders use these concepts in their speeches. It means that they convey this idea through verbal war. So, ‘Politics’ is considered a source domain, and ‘War’ is considered a target domain.

The conceptual expression ‘Politics is Sport has been recognized. The word won (B4, 2020) demonstrates the structural metaphor through the idea of ‘Politics is Sport’. ‘Sport’ is associated with ‘Politics’. Therefore, ‘Sport’ has been taken as a source domain and ‘Politics’ has been taken as a target domain. The word won is used to describe political tactics employed to achieve success in the political sphere. Leaders in politics viewed politics as a sport or game.




Orientational Metaphors

The metaphorical words described above convey the idea that when anything is put into politics, it signifies that it has an effect on it. The ‘More’, which denotes the significance of something in great quantities, is associated with ‘up’. The words a large number (B5, 2022) and increased (B4, 2019) give the meaning of something in a large quantity. The words heights (B3, 2020), high (B1, 2019) and huge (B5, 2022) indicate the meaning of something great in size or intensity. The word up (B1, 2019) is frequently used in the given examples. The concept ‘More is up’, gives the meaning of something going too high in the upward direction. ‘More’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Up’ is considered a target domain. 

The political statements provide the metaphorical expression ‘The Future will be Better’. The phrases bright future ahead, enhanced opportunity (B1, 2019), and a better future (B4, 2019) indicated the meaning of something that is going to happen or better in the future. The sentence provides the concept that the chances of betterment will rise in the future, which will also affect politics. ‘Better’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Future’ is considered a target domain.

The political statements provide the concept of ‘Unknown is up’ that has been identified. The word unheard (B1, 2019) conveys the sense of not knowing anything. ‘Up’ is related to the concept of ‘Unknown’, which implies that when someone is not aware, they will have an influence on politics. The domain ‘Up’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Unknown’ is used as a target.

The political statements are given the conceptual expressions ‘Having Control or Force is up’. The words (B1, 2019), hold up (B4, 2020), and forced (B1, 2019) also show that Kashmiris are being oppressed by the Indian government. The conceptual expression ‘Having Control is up’ has been identified. It gives the meaning of control on an extreme level. Narendra Modi represents the concept of control or power in Jammu and Kashmir. The words crown and top indicate that the Indian government considered the Kashmir region as a point of rule and supremacy. It would be shown to the world. The metaphors of up and upping provided the idea of increasing something in quantity. It means that military control is increasing in Jammu and Kashmir. ‘Up’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Having Control or Force’ is considered a target domain.

The example of political speech gives the idea of ‘Having Force is down’.  The phrases free hand (B4, 2020) and weaker (B4, 2022) suggest that there is a decrease in force. ‘Down’ is associated with the idea of ‘Having Force’ which means force or control is not on an extreme level. ‘Down’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Having Control or Force’ is considered a target domain.

The political statements give the metaphorical strategies of ‘Less is down’. The words reduce, low (B1, 2019), few (B3, 2020), and down (B2, 2019) indicate the meaning of turning down something or a decrease, which has also affected political things. It showed that things are less in quantity, size, cost, and intensity. The domain ‘Down’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Less’ is used as a target.

The political example gives the idea of ‘Known is down’. The word aware (B3, 2020) provided the concept of having knowledge about something, which means it would have an impact on politics. ‘Down’ is associated with the idea of ‘known’. ‘Down’ is considered a source domain, and ‘Known’ is considered a target domain.

The political examples give the idea that ‘Health is up’. The phrases felt very good (B4, 2020) and improve health (B4, 2020) provide the concept of having good health or feeling well, which means it would be impacted by politics. ‘Up’ is regarded as a source domain, while ‘Health’ is regarded as a target domain.




Ontological Metaphor

The political statements have given the concept of ‘Activities as a Container’. The word a lot (B1, 2019) provides the meaning of activity as a container. As it showed that debates are conducted in or out of parliament. The domain Container is used as a source, while the domain Activities is used as a target.

The political statement represented the metaphorical expression ‘State as a Container’. The words putting in (B5, 2020) suggested the meaning of having something inside the soil. It means putting something in the soil that is considered a container. The domain ‘Container’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘State’ is used as a target.

The political statement represented the metaphorical expression ‘Objects as a Container’. The word out of (B1, 2019) suggests the meaning of having something in an object. The domain ‘Container’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Objects’ is used as a target domain.

The political statements have given the concept of ‘Politics is a Physical State’. The words faced (B2, 2019), expand, happiness, sorrow, suffer, and suffering (B1, 2019) provide meaning if someone is not in a good position. These words indicate that ‘Politics’ is mirrored in the physical state. The domain ‘Physical State’ is used as a source, while the domain ‘Politics’ is used as a target domain.

The discussion of Narendra Modi's speeches provides the concepts of terrorism that come from the area of Pakistan. He considered Pakistan the main reason for violence and war in Kashmir. In this regard, he delegated the concepts of terrorism, authority, and war through structural metaphors; power, oppression, and the unknown through orientational metaphors; and problems and difficulties through ontological metaphors. He used to convey the idea of betterment in Kashmir. The people of Kashmir will find relief and peace.

Conclusion and Suggestions

Conclusion

This research has been conducted to explore the metaphorical expressions in the political speeches to be part of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi. Metaphorical expressions and strategies are found in the speeches of both political leaders, Imran Khan and Narendra Modi. Conceptual metaphors have also been identified to present ideas or concepts that are contrasted with each other. It also shows that there is a connection between the words and concepts. It means that words do not only have dictionary meanings but also have contextual meanings. So, conceptual metaphors tend to give meaning to concepts and ideas more than dictionary explanations as highlighted by the analysis of these speeches. According to the model of conceptual metaphor that is given by Lakoff and Johnson, the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), the source domain and target domain are mapped onto each other. The study presents the concepts of domains that are mapped in the comparative analysis of the political speeches of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi. 

The result of the research shows that orientational metaphors are being used by both leaders and followers, followed by structural and ontological metaphors, respectively. In the interpretation section of the speeches, Imran Khan uses metaphors of violence and war to show the oppression in Jammu and Kashmir. Narendra Modi, on the other hand, has avoided violent expression. He defends his acts that were against the UN's rules and regulations. In his speeches, Imran Khan took a stand for the Kashmiris and told the world about the situation of Kashmiris, but Narendra tries to hide the truth from the world. In the speeches of both leaders, the blame game has been found between them. India has always blamed Pakistan for the terrorist attacks in the Indian region. India represents Pakistanis as terrorists to the rest of the world. So, Modi tries to defame Pakistan. Modi also avoided mentioning the Kashmir issue at the UN's annual session and tried to weaken the Kashmir narrative. Political leaders usually portray each other negatively and present themselves positively. 

 Political leaders use metaphors more frequently in their speeches for many reasons. The use of metaphors in political discourse is to perform the different functions of the speaker. It means that it represents contextual, social, and cultural meanings. It is the cause of the different narrative styles presented by the political leaders. It makes political speeches more effective and reveals hidden ideologies and expressions. Political leaders also use metaphorical expressions to manipulate the conceptual systems of the audience as analysed through the speeches of Imran Khan and Narendra Modi.




Suggestions

The investigation of the conceptual metaphors will be helpful to grasp the concepts in various other areas of study, like political science. This study might be helpful in teaching the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) to students. Through this research, the student will be able to comprehend how the metaphors are being analyzed by using the CMT method. The study also suggests conducting further research by using another method rather than Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) like Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). The corpora that are related to other areas of study can be examined from the cognitive perspective. The study recommends conducting further research by using the political speeches of other politicians. This research also recommends investigating other than political speeches, like interviews, advertisements, or newspapers. Further study may be conducted on the utilization of various techniques in political discourse. This research explored the political speeches of only two politicians. Further research may be conducted on more than two political leaders.

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